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Laser diode

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A packaged laser diode with penny for scale.

Image of the actual laser diode chip (shown on the eye of a needle for scale) contained within the package shown in the above image.

Image of the actual laser diode chip clearly displaying various thin-film deposited layers (metals and insulators) and a gold wirebond for electrical contact to one electrode. This laser diode was taken from a CD-ROM drive.
A laser diode is a laser where the active medium is a semiconductor similar to that found in a light-emitting diode. The most common and practical type of laser diode is formed from a p-n junction and powered by injected electric current. These devices are sometimes referred to as injection laser diodes to distinguish them from (optically) pumped laser diodes, which are more easily produced in the laboratory.
Contents
1 Theory of operation
2 Laser diode types
2.1 Double heterostructure lasers
2.2 Quantum well lasers
2.3 Quantum cascade lasers
2.4 Separate confinement heterostructure lasers
2.5 Distributed feedback lasers
2.6 VCSELs
2.7 VECSELs
3 Failure modes
4 Applications of laser diodes
5 Common wavelengths
6 History
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
//
Theory of operation
A laser diode, like many other semiconductor devices, is formed by doping a very thin layer on the surface of a crystal wafer. The crystal is doped to produce an n-type region and a p-type region, one above the other, resulting in a p-n junction, or diode.
The many types of diode lasers known today collectively form a subset of the larger classification of semiconductor p-n junction diodes. Just as in any semiconductor p-n junction diode, forward electrical bias causes the two species of charge carrier - holes and electrons - to be "injected" from opposite sides of the p-n junction into the depletion region, situated at its heart. Holes are injected from the p-doped, and electrons from the n-doped, semiconductor. (A depletion region, devoid of any charge carriers, forms automatically and unavoidably as a result of the difference in chemical potential between n- and p-type semiconductors wherever they are in physical contact.)
As charge injection is a distinguishing feature of diode lasers as compared to all other lasers, diode lasers are traditionally and more formally called "injection lasers." (This terminology differentiates diode lasers, e.g., from flashlamp-pumped solid state lasers, such as the ruby laser. Interestingly, whereas the term "solid-state" was extremely apt in differentiating 1950s-era semiconductor electronics from earlier generations of vacuum electronics, it would not have been adequate to convey unambiguously the unique characteristics defining 1960s-era semiconductor lasers.) When an electron and a hole are present in the same region, they may recombine or "annihilate" with the result being spontaneous emission i.e., the electron may re-occupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference between the electron and hole states involved. (In a conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy released from the recombination of electrons and holes is carried away as phonons, i.e., lattice vibrations, rather than as photons.) Spontaneous emission gives the laser diode below lasing threshold similar properties to an LED. Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is oscillating.
The difference between the photon-emitting semiconductor laser (or LED) and conventional phonon-emitting (non-light-emitting) semiconductor junction diodes lies in the use of a different type of semiconductor, one whose physical and atomic structure confers the possibility for photon emission. These photon-emitting semiconductors are the so-called "direct bandgap" semiconductors. The properties of silicon and germanium, which are single-element semiconductors, have bandgaps that do not align in the way needed to allow photon emission and are not considered "direct." Other materials, the so-called compound semiconductors, have virtually identical crystaline structures as silicon or germanium but use alternating arrangements of two different atomic species in a checkerboard-like pattern to break the symmetry. The transition between the materials in the alternating pattern creates the critical "direct bandgap" property. Gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium antimonide, and gallium nitride are all examples of compound semiconductor materials that can be used to create junction diodes that emit light.

Diagram (not to scale) of a simple laser diode (note that this diagram complements the laser diode shown above.
In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g., lasing) conditions, electrons and...(and so on)

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Skar?ysko-Kamienna

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Skar?ysko-Kamienna
One of town's districts
Coat of arms
Skar?ysko-Kamienna
Coordinates: 517?N 2055?E? / ?51.117 20.917? / 51.117; 20.917
Country
Poland
Voivodeship
?wi?tokrzyskie
County
Skar?ysko
Gmina
Skar?ysko-Kamienna (urban gmina)
Town rights
1923 as Kamienna
Government
-Mayor
Roman Wojcieszek
Area
-Total
64.16km2(24.8sqmi)
Elevation
250m (820ft)
Population (2006)
-Total
48,957
-Density
763/km2(1,976.3/sqmi)
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
-Summer(DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code
26-110
Area code(s)
+48 41
Car plates
TSK
Website
http://www.skarzysko.pl

The Sacred Heart of Jesus Church
Skar?ysko-Kamienna [skar???sk?ka?mj?nna] ( listen) is a town in northern ?wi?tokrzyskie Voivodeship in Poland by Kamienna river, to the north of ?wi?tokrzyskie Mountains; one of the voivodship's major towns. Prior to 1928, it bore the name of Kamienna; in less formal contexts usually only the first part of the name (Skar?ysko) is used.
Skar?ysko-Kamienna is an important railroad junction, with two main lines (Krakow - Warsaw and Sandomierz - Koluszki) crossing there.
Contents
1 History
1.1 1900s
1.2 The Germans in Skar?ysko-Kamienna
1.3 1945 and later
2 Attractions
3 Trivia
4 Twin towns
5 See also
6 External links
//
History
In 1173, the knights' congress gathered in Milica village (now the town's district) led by Casimir II The Just.
1900s
In 1923, the commune of Kamienna was granted town privileges. In 1924, National Ammunition Factory was built (now known as MESKO). And in 1928, town's name was changed to Skar?ysko-Kamienna.
The Germans in Skar?ysko-Kamienna
In 1940, the Germans carried out mass executions of Poles (360 people executed in February and 760 in June). In 1942, the Germans set up a forced labour camp for the Jews where tens of thousands died in forced labor (See the book: Death Comes in Yellow). In the summer of 1944, the camp was liquidated and the remaining prisoners were either killed or transported to the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany.
1945 and later
On January 18, 1945 the town was liberated. The few Jewish survivors from Skarzysko-Kamienna returned to the town, but then local Polish threatened their lives, asking them to leave. In February 1946 five Jewish residents were murdered by local Polish men. The murderers, among them the head of the town police and another policeman, were put to trial in Lodz, and three of them got death penalty. The remaining Jews left Poland.
In 1969, The White Eagle Museum was established. And in 1999, Skar?ysko County was established as a result of the Local Government Reogranization Act (1998).
Attractions
The White Eagle Museum (Muzeum im. Or?a Bia?ego) - a military museum with Poland's second largest outdoor display, most items dating back to the World War II period.
indoor display - uniforms, ammunition, pistols and smaller guns, soldier equipment, photographs, documents, etc.
outdoor display - one of Poland's few ships displayed onshore (torpedo boat Odwa?ny - The Brave), planes, tanks (including one of world's few preserved Sturmgeschz IV vehicles), helicopters, cannons, etc.
Trivia
Throughout the communist era and beyond, popular gossip had it that blocks of flats in Milica district, built in the 1950s, had been arranged to form the word Stalin or Bierut. Aerial photographs have disproved both versions of the gossip.
Several scenes of Steven Spielberg's Schindler's List were filmed in MESKO - the town's largest factory which used to house a forced labour camp during World War II.
Twin towns
Stafford
?mierinka
Kavarna
See also
List of cities in Poland
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Skar?ysko-Kamienna
Skarzysko.pl - official site of the town's municipality (Polish) (English) (German)
Skar?ysko-Kamienna On-line - town's unofficial site (language - Polish; direct access to the sections below)
Historical and contemporary photographs of the town
Photographs of the outdoor display of the White Eagle Museum (Muzeum Or?a Bia?ego)
Information about the White Eagle Museum (in English)
Skar?ysko24.pl - newest town unofficial site (language - Polish, English, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish)
Coordinates: 5107?N 2054?E? / ?51.117 20.9? / 51.117; 20.9

v?d?eGminas of Skar?ysko County
Seat: Skar?ysko-Kamienna (urban gmina)
Urban-rural gmina: Gmina SuchedniRural gminas: Gmina...(and so on)

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Premier (car)

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(Redirected from Premier Automobiles)
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Premier Automobiles Limited. (Discuss)
Premier Automobiles Limited is a Mumbai-based manufacturer of vehicles.
Founded in 1944, the car first launched production by building vehicles under license from Dodge and Plymouth. In 1951, they began producing versions of the Fiat 500 for the Indian market. This was followed by the Fiat 1100 in 1954. In 1973, the Premier name was used on their vehicles for the first time, the Premier President, based on the Fiat 1100 as Premier Padmini. In 1984, they launched the Fiat 124-based Premier 118 and 138D models. In 2000, they launched production, under license from Taiwan's China Motor Corporation, of the Premier Sigma and Roadster vans and pick-ups.
Premier Automobiles is an Indian automaker which flourished in the so called 'sudhakar' period from the 1950s till the early 1990s when India was closed to the world and imports. The company was established in 1944 as a result of successful negotiations with Chrysler Corporation in 1939, resulting in licenses to build a Plymouth car and a Dodge truck, sold under the Dodge, Plymouth, DeSoto, and Fargo names) starting around 1949. In the early years, quality was considered good by both Chrysler and the Indian Department of Defense. In 1949, parts were being made in India, starting with simpler components and gradually building up to more complex pieces. Two companies made parts: Premier and Hindustan Motors of Calcutta. The early years of Premier and Hindustan were marked by very low sales, due to the size of the market; only about 20,000 vehicles per year were made in India, in 65 different models. To prevent foreign companies from dominating by mass-producing parts to be assembled into cars in India, the government set up steep import duties on imported parts in 1954, allowing Indian parts-makers to survive.

Premier 118NE
Premier also made a licensed version of the Fiat 1100 which later continued almost unchanged into the late 1990s as the Premier Padmini with a 40hp (30kW) 1100 cc engine. Later models included the Premier 118NE (named after its 1180 cc Nissan A engine and transmission from the Nissan Cherry), a version of the 1960s Fiat 124, considered a luxury car in India till the influx of modern cars in the 1990s.
With market liberalisation Premier tied up with Peugeot to build the Peugeot 309 in India. Initial demand was high but labour problems and poor dealer service led to problems which were compounded when Premier also tied up with old partners Fiat to manufacture the Fiat Uno. Peugeot pulled out of the venture around 2001 with only a few thousand cars sold. Labour and service issues also plagued the Fiat venture and a massive strike finally caused the plant to shut around 2001 with Fiat left to fend for itself with its reputation marred. Not only Fiat, but also the Premier Automobiles Ltd., faced severe criticism in media. There were various criminal cases against its promoters. The Consumer Courts of India were flooded with complaints for non-refund of the car booking. The Promoters of Premier Automobiles have also been confronted with Criminal cases in various consumer courts of India under section 27 of Consumer Protection Act. A customer Association based at Gujarat - Rajkot called Pal Car Customer Association has made various representations against the Premier Automobiles Ltd. CNBC channel also aired an interview under the crime story program called "UNCOVERED".
In November 2004 Premier restarted operations by building a small diesel powered van called the Sigma mainly for the taxi market. It is based on an old 1980s Mitsubishi Varica design licenced from China Motor in Taiwan, with the Peugeot engine from the 309.
Contents
1 Models
2 References
3 See also
4 External links
//
Models
Premier Sigma (a compact diesel MPV)
Premier Roadstar (a compact diesel pickup)
Premier Lifeline (an ambulance based on Sigma Platform)
References
^ Chrysler cars of India - Premier Automobiles
See also
Premier Automobiles Limited
Premier Padmini
External links
Official Company Website
Premier's Vehicle Division Website
Premier Sigma Reviews
Indiacar.com
Categories: Motor vehicle manufacturers of India | Indian automobiles
Hidden categories: All articles to be merged | Articles to be merged since November 2007(and so on)

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Light Rail Transit

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The name Light Rail Transit is used by the following specific light rail systems, either as an official name or otherwise:
Manila Light Rail Transit System, Metro Manila, Philippines
Rapid KL Light Rail Transit, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
former name of KCR Light Rail, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
Edmonton Light Rail Transit, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
C-Train, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
O-Train, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Light Rapid Transit (Singapore)
Hiawatha Line, Minneapolis, Minnesota and Bloomington, Minnesota, Minnesota.
See also
Light Rapid Transit
Light railway
Light rail
Tram/Trolley/Streetcar
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Categories: Disambiguation pages
Hidden categories: All disambiguation pages | All article disambiguation pages(and so on)

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Mongul

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Mongul
Mongul from Green Lantern Corps #20Art by Patrick Gleason.
Publication information
Publisher
DC Comics
First appearance
(I) DC Comics Presents #27 (Nov. 1980)(II) Showcase '95 #8(Sep. 1995)
Created by
(I) Len WeinJim Starlin(II) Jeph Loeb
In-story information
Place of origin
Arkymandryte
Team affiliations
(II) Suicide Squad
Notable aliases
(I) Lord of the Warworld
Abilities
(All versions)Superhuman strength, speed, agility, stamina and durability,Energy Projection(Mongul II)Yellow Qwardian Power Ring(Pre-Crisis)TelepathyTeleportationAbility to create dimensional pockets of warped reality.
Mongul is the name of two fictional characters that appear in comic books published by DC Comics. The original Mongul first appeared in DC Comics Presents #27 (November 1980), and was created by Jim Starlin and Len Wein. The second Mongul, the son of the first, first appeared in Showcase '95 #8 and was created by Jeph Loeb.
Contents
1 Fictional character biography
1.1 Pre-Crisis
1.2 Post-Crisis
1.2.1 Son of Mongul
2 Powers and abilities
3 In other media
3.1 Television
3.2 Video games
3.3 JLA/Avengers
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
//
Fictional character biography
Pre-Crisis
Mongul was originally the tyrannical ruler of his own alien race. He was eventually deposed by a revolution and Mongul swore that he would reconquer his subjects. To this end, he sought the most powerful weapon in the Universe: the artificial planet, Warworld. To activate it, however, he needs a "key" device, which is under the care of the Martian Manhunter. Mongul kidnapped three of Superman's friends (Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, and Steve Lombard) to force the hero to get the key for him. Superman fought against and defeated the Manhunter and obtained the key. In the subsequent scuffle, the Manhunter rescued Superman's friends, but Mongul escaped with the key. Mongul activated Warworld and linked his mind directly to its controls. Warworld was attacked by Superman and Supergirl and Mongul used its superweapons against them. Almost too late, he realized that the controls' drain on his brain was too strong; however, he managed to escape just before the heroes destroyed Warworld. Some time later, Mongul again tried to steal a superweapon; this time, it was a planet-destroying ray machine used by the empress of another galaxy to blackmail its citizens into obedience. It was controlled by the empress' crown. In a plot to obtain the crown, Mongul killed the empress, captured her brother, the alien superhero Starman and threatened to kill him unless Starman's lover gave him the crown. He got the crown, but was attacked again by Superman; this proved to be a diversion while Starman destroyed the weapon. Again, Mongul escaped. Desiring revenge on Superman, Mongul steals a Sun-Eater from the Controller who kept it and tried to use it to devour the Earth's solar system. With help from the Legion of Super-Heroes, the Sun-Eater was destroyed (and Superman was finally able to defeat Mongul in hand-to-hand combat).
Mongul is probably best known for his villainous part in Alan Moore's story For the Man Who Has Everything, which appeared in Superman Annual #11.
Post-Crisis

Mongul as seen in The Return of Superman. Drawn by Tom Grummett.
After DC Comics decided to reboot their Universe (see Crisis on Infinite Earths), the original Mongul stories were no longer valid; only For the Man Who Has Everything is canonical. Mongul was reintroduced as already having obtained Warworld and having used it to create his own space empire. He entertained the empire's citizens with gladiatorial games; the champion was an alien warrior called Draaga. Mongul captured Superman for use in the games, but the hero ended up joining forces with Draaga and making Mongul flee. Mongul was then persuaded via torture to serve the Cyborg Superman in order to gain vengeance on Superman and to try to turn the Earth into another Warworld. In the process, Green Lantern Hal Jordan's home, Coast City, was destroyed, which led to Jordan joining Superman and his allies to defeat Mongul (see The Death of Superman). After his defeat, Mongul was imprisoned in a jail for intergalactic criminals, only to break out during a riot. His first target was Green Lantern; he found out that the one whom he faced (Kyle Rayner), was not the one he fought earlier. Even more so, he was defeated when Kyle's ring showed no weakness to yellow, something that even shocked the aiding Superman. Following his defeat, he was re-imprisoned.
Mongul breaks out of the Lunar penal colony he was in, killing everyone there including prisoners who are left to die in the vacuum of space. His ship is almost wrecked and he is near death; he is teleported to a...(and so on)

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